Religion

Anthropology of Religion

The anthropology of religion studies how religious ideas shape social practice and how religion is used both to interpret and influence the world. Ideas of supernatural powers and beings as well as of animated objects which have a relationship with human societies exist universally in all non-literate societies. This realisation within social anthropology led to the emergence of a specialised field: the anthropology of religion. Henceforth, religion was no longer understood as a phenomenon necessarily linked to sacred writings and, thus, the study of religion no longer remained limited to so-called state-organised societies. Rather, evolutionists such as E.B. Tylor and George Frazer claimed that all early cultures and religion emerged out of “animism”. Thus, early anthropologists of religion considered phenomena such as ancestor worship, taboos, shamanism, totemism, magic and witchcraft to be expressions of “primitive” religion and began analysing them ethnographically.

Today, the anthropology of religion considers issues such as how indigenous and other localised religious ideas shape and strengthen local identities, thereby challenging the claims for global hegemony by religions based on written scripture. These localised religious ideas offer resistance to global religions as much as they reinterpret and appropriate them. Currently, on-going research projects at our Institute explore the revival of tarantism in Southern Italy and the role of the Christian church in Indonesian politics of development since the 1970s. Moreover, numerous other research projects at the Institute address conflicts both within and between different religions.

Following is a brief overview of some well known but non-Abrahamic religions:

  1. Confucianism:
    • Founder: Confucius (Kong Fuzi or Kongzi)
    • Origin: China, around 6th-5th century BCE
    • Core Beliefs:
      • Emphasis on ethics, moral values, and social harmony.
      • The Five Relationships: A key concept in Confucianism that outlines proper social interactions and duties, such as ruler-subject, parent-child, husband-wife, and friend-friend.
      • Filial Piety: The respect and devotion that children should show to their parents.
      • Virtue and self-cultivation: The belief that individuals should strive for self-improvement through education, ritual, and self-discipline.
    • Texts: The Analects, a collection of sayings and ideas attributed to Confucius.
  2. Zoroastrianism:
    • Founder: Zoroaster (or Zarathustra)
    • Origin: Persia (ancient Iran), around the 6th century BCE
    • Core Beliefs:
      • Belief in a single, supreme deity known as Ahura Mazda, who is the source of all good.
      • The concept of dualism, with a struggle between Ahura Mazda (good) and Angra Mainyu (evil).
      • Emphasis on truth, righteousness, and ethical living.
      • Fire is a symbol of purity and is revered in Zoroastrian rituals.
    • Texts: The Avesta, a collection of religious texts, including the Gathas, the hymns believed to be composed by Zoroaster.
  3. Taoism (Daoism):
    • Founders: Laozi (Lao Tzu) and Zhuangzi (Chuang Tzu)
    • Origin: China, around the 6th century BCE (Laozi) and later (Zhuangzi)
    • Core Beliefs:
      • The Tao (or Dao) is the central concept, representing the “Way” or the fundamental principle that underlies and unites everything.
      • Emphasis on living in harmony with nature, simplicity, and non-action (Wu Wei).
      • The idea that societal order can be achieved by following the natural flow of the Tao.
    • Texts: The Tao Te Ching, attributed to Laozi, and the writings of Zhuangzi.
  4. Hinduism:
    • Origin: Ancient India, with roots dating back over 4,000 years.
    • Core Beliefs:
      • Belief in a supreme reality (Brahman) that exists in all things.
      • Reincarnation and karma: The belief that the soul (Atman) is reborn in different forms, and one’s actions in this life (karma) affect future lives.
      • Diverse pantheon of gods and goddesses, including Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva, and Devi.
      • Paths to spiritual realization, including Bhakti (devotion), Karma (action), Jnana (knowledge), and Raja (meditation) yoga.
    • Texts: Numerous sacred texts, including the Vedas, Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita, and the epics Ramayana and Mahabharata.

These are very simplified overviews of these complex belief systems. Each of these religions and philosophies has a rich history and diverse interpretations, so there is much more to explore within each of them.

Budhism